DISSECTING ARCHITECTURAL ATMOSPHERES: Bridging Affordances, Multisensoriality, and the Neurosciences
This paper was written by Akos Orban of Noumen Studio as part of his research at the Doctoral School of Moholy-Nagy University of Art and Design.
In Western countries, where people spend over ninety percent of their time in built environments, the profound impact of these surroundings on our physical and mental health is largely overlooked. Functionalist design attitudes rooted in modernism often view people as insignificant components within the machinery of the built environment. In contrast, prioritizing human emotions and sensory experiences in architectural practice shows significant potential for enhancing both physical and psychological well-being. This paper draws upon insights from both philosophical inquiry and neuroscientific research to elucidate how architectural environments influence human cognition, emotion, and behavior. By advocating for a parallel inquiry that explores spatial experience through both first-person phenomenological perspectives and empirical third-person methodologies, I argue for integrating these approaches into the emerging field of neuroarchitecture. This interdisciplinary approach promises to bridge subjective experiences and objective measurements, leading to innovations in architectural design that are more attuned to human needs.
Philosophical Foundations of Spatial Experience
The contemplation of space and its impact on human experience has been a central concern of philosophers for centuries. Early philosophical inquiries by figures such as Plato and Aristotle laid foundational ideas about spatial experience. Plato, in his Theory of Forms, posited that space is an ideal realm where perfect forms exist independently of the sensory world, suggesting that our perception of space is but a shadow of this higher reality. Aristotle, on the other hand, grounded his understanding of space in the physical world, examining it in relation to substance and movement. He proposed that space is a container for objects and is defined by the relationships between these objects, emphasizing the dynamic nature of spatial interactions. These early ideas set the stage for a long-standing philosophical debate about the nature of space and our experience of it.
Building on these early explorations, modern philosophy has grappled further with the complexities of spatial experience, seeking to understand the intricate interplay between the mind, body, and space. By the 1600s, with René Descartes, philosophy arrived at a total separation of mind and body, a dualism that posited the mind and body as fundamentally distinct substances. This Cartesian duality has had a profound influence on subsequent philosophical thought. Even seminal philosophers like Immanuel Kant and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel did not fully depart from this framework. Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason introduced the concept of space as a fundamental aspect of human cognition, positing it as an a priori intuition—a form of knowledge that exists independently of experience—that structures our perceptual experiences. Kant’s transcendental idealism emphasized the active role of the mind in shaping spatial perception, setting the stage for later discussions on the relationship between consciousness and space. Building upon Kant’s insights, Hegel further developed ideas about space within his dialectical framework, conceiving space not just as an abstract dimension but also as interconnected with temporal and historical processes, which anticipates some elements of later phenomenological approaches.
Edmund Husserl's phenomenology was the first significant inquiry questioning this Cartesian duality. Husserl analyzed lived experience to uncover the structures of consciousness, including the ways in which spatial objects appear to consciousness and the embodied nature of perception. Furthering Husserl's phenomenology, Maurice Merleau-Ponty revolutionized our understanding of perception by emphasizing the embodied and relational nature of experience. Rejecting the dualism separating mind and body, Merleau-Ponty viewed the body as the locus of perception and embodiment, arguing that our existence is inseparable from our bodily presence and our interactions with the world. His exploration of the body as the primary site of perception laid the foundation for a phenomenological approach to spatiality, highlighting the dynamic interaction between the subject and the world.
My perception is not a sum of visual, tactile and audible givens: I perceive in a total way with my whole being: I grasp a unique structure of the thing, a unique way of being, which speaks to all my senses at once.
(Merleau-Ponty 1968, 48)
Other important works by notable phenomenologists fleshed out the reality of existential space. Friedrich Bollnow’s Lived Space explored how space is experienced in daily life, Martin Heidegger’s “Building, Dwelling, Thinking” delved into the existential and ontological aspects of space, and Gaston Bachelard’s The Poetics of Space examined the intimate spaces of our lives, such as homes, and their profound emotional resonance.
New Phenomenology, Atmospheres, and Affordances
Continuing the trajectory of phenomenological exploration of space, Hermann Schmitz's New Phenomenology, developed in the late 1960s, represented a significant evolution of traditional phenomenological thought. Schmitz’s work reconfigured and extended classical phenomenology by focusing on the lived experiences and bodily sensations that constitute human perception of spaces. Central to Schmitz’s neophenomenology was the concept of atmosphere, which he argues is a fundamental aspect of human experience, mediating between the environment and individual emotional states. Unlike traditional phenomenological approaches that often prioritize the subject-object relationship, Schmitz emphasized the pre-reflective and affective dimensions of experience. In Schmitz's framework, atmospheres are spatially extended feelings that pervade environments and are perceived through the body, influencing our emotions and behaviors even before we consciously recognize them.
Building upon Schmitz's groundwork, German philosopher Gernot Böhme further developed the concept of atmosphere in the 1990s, integrating it with aesthetic theory and environmental design. Böhme expands the notion of atmosphere beyond Schmitz’s phenomenological confines, exploring how atmospheres are created, manipulated, and perceived in everyday life and artistic practices. Böhme’s approach emphasizes the role of sensory and emotional experiences in shaping our interaction with spaces, arguing that atmospheres are key elements of aesthetic appreciation and existential engagement. His work underscores the significance of atmosphere in architectural and urban design, proposing that designers intentionally craft atmospheric qualities to evoke specific emotional responses and enhance the lived experience of spaces.
This phenomenological emphasis on the immersive and affective qualities of space aligns intriguingly with James J. Gibson's concept of affordances, which originates from ecological psychology. Gibson’s theory of affordances describes the actionable possibilities that environments offer to an organism, highlighting the relational properties between the individual and their surroundings. In Gibson’s view, affordances are perceived directly without cognitive mediation, thus emphasizing an immediate and practical interaction with the environment. Italian philosopher Tonino Griffero explores the intersection between affordances and atmospheres, arguing that atmospheres can be understood as environmental affordances that are perceived holistically and affectively by individuals. According to Griffero, atmospheres provide a kind of affordance that goes beyond mere functionality, offering emotional and experiential qualities that shape how we feel and behave within a space.
The Affective Turn and Neurophenomenology
The late 20th and early 21st centuries witnessed a significant shift in the humanities and social sciences, known as the affective turn. This movement emphasizes the role of emotions, feelings, and affect in shaping human experience and knowledge, challenging the rationalist paradigms that had dominated earlier thought. This shift also impacted traditionally empirical fields such as neuroscience by acknowledging the intriguing relationship between cognition and emotion. Within this context, the interdisciplinary branch of neophenomenology, neurophenomenology emerged, spearheaded by Chilean neuroscientist and philosopher Francisco Varela, which sought to bridge the gap between subjective experience and objective neuroscience.
Varela's neurophenomenology, introduced in the late 1990s, represented a groundbreaking integration of phenomenological insights with neuroscientific research. He proposed a methodological framework that combined first-person experiential data with third-person scientific observations, aiming to provide a comprehensive understanding of consciousness. Varela argued that to fully grasp the nature of human experience, it is essential to consider the lived, subjective aspects of perception alongside the empirical findings of neuroscience. This approach involves a dynamic interplay between introspective methods and neurobiological investigations, seeking to reveal the structures of consciousness and their neural correlates.
Neurophenomenology's approach is deeply enriched by several key concepts and methodologies. Varela's Neurophenomenological Research Project (NRP) exemplifies this integrative vision by systematically combining subjective experiences (1P) with objective measurements (3P) through a structured interaction facilitated by second-person (2P) approaches. These 2P methods ensure that the subjective reports are reliable and intersubjectively valid. Micro-phenomenology—a technique that captures fine-grained details of lived experiences through in-depth interviews conducted by empathetically-tuned phenomenological investigators—is pivotal in this context, allowing researchers to obtain precise and nuanced descriptions of consciousness.
Another critical element is the practice of epoché, a phenomenological method that involves suspending judgments and assumptions to access pure experience. This practice, alongside Descriptive Experience Sampling (DES), which systematically captures and analyzes moments of experience, forms the backbone of neurophenomenology's rigorous first-person methodologies. Meditation practices, often used in neurophenomenological studies, provide another layer of introspective depth, offering insights into altered states of consciousness and their neural underpinnings.
In the broader scope, neurophenomenology distinguishes between thin and thick phenomenology. Thin phenomenology refers to the immediate, surface-level description of experiences, while thick phenomenology delves deeper into the contextual and structural aspects of those experiences. By integrating these various layers, neurophenomenology aims to construct a comprehensive, multi-dimensional understanding of consciousness that bridges the subjective and objective realms, offering a holistic view that neither traditional neuroscience nor classical phenomenology could achieve alone.
Neuroscience and Architectural Experience
Just as philosophy took a long journey to arrive at neurophenomenology, neuroscience also followed a lengthy path to reach this interdisciplinary convergence. Neuroplasticity, a fundamental concept in neuroscience, refers to the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. This ability allows the brain to adapt to new experiences, learn new information, and recover from injuries. The concept began to take shape in the mid-20th century with Donald Hebb's influential work on synaptic plasticity, proposing that neural connections strengthen through repeated activity. In the 1960s, Marian Diamond's pioneering experiments demonstrated that enriched environments could lead to measurable changes in brain structure, such as increased cortical thickness, highlighting the brain's capacity for growth and adaptation in response to environmental stimuli.
By the late 1990s, neuroscience was examining how certain salient stimuli, including art, affect the human brain. Coined by Semir Zeki, neuroaesthetics explores the neural basis of aesthetic experiences. A groundbreaking research project by David Freedberg and Vittorio Gallese has investigated the empathic dimension of aesthetic experiences, exemplified in their analysis of artists Lucio Fontana and Franz Kline. Their experiments revealed how observing artworks activates our innate mirror system, allowing us to vicariously experience the artist's bodily movements and emotional sensations during creation. Similarly, neuroscientists Hanna and Antonio Damasio have demonstrated that our brains respond as if our bodies were being touched when witnessing objects touching. This concept of embodied simulation and the workings of our innate mirror systems are also integral to architectural experiences.
In the realm of architecture, the integration of neurophenomenological insights offers a profound opportunity to re-envision how we design spaces. By understanding how environments influence human cognition, emotion, and behavior, architects can create spaces that promote well-being and enhance the human experience.
Juhani Pallasmaa, a Finnish architect and theorist, has long championed the idea that architecture should engage all the senses. In his seminal work, The Eyes of the Skin, Pallasmaa critiques the dominance of the visual in contemporary architecture and argues for a more holistic approach that considers the tactile, auditory, olfactory, and proprioceptive dimensions of space. He posits that true architectural experience is multisensory, involving the entire body in a unified perception of the environment. Pallasmaa's perspective aligns with phenomenological principles, emphasizing the inseparability of mind and body and the importance of sensory engagement in creating meaningful spaces.
Architect and theorist Sarah Robinson builds on Pallasmaa's ideas, exploring the intersection of neuroscience and architecture. In her book Mind in Architecture: Neuroscience, Embodiment, and the Future of Design co-edited with Juhani Pallasmaa, Robinson discusses how the built environment affects the brain and body. She advocates for a design philosophy that acknowledges the embodied mind, where cognitive processes are deeply intertwined with sensory experiences. Robinson's work underscores the potential of neuroscience to inform architectural practice, enabling designers to create environments that resonate with our innate biological and emotional responses.
Swiss architect Peter Zumthor exemplifies the application of these principles through his meticulous attention to materiality, light, and spatial quality. Zumthor's architecture is renowned for its sensory richness and atmospheric depth. His buildings, such as the Therme Vals in Switzerland, offer immersive experiences that engage the senses and evoke emotional responses. Zumthor's approach reflects a deep understanding of the phenomenological and neurophysiological aspects of space, creating environments that foster a profound sense of presence and connection.
Similarly, American architect Steven Holl employs phenomenological principles in his design process, focusing on the interplay of light, material, and space. Holl's architecture seeks to create sensory experiences that resonate with the body's natural rhythms and perceptions. His projects, like the Chapel of St. Ignatius in Seattle, use light as a primary medium to shape spatial experience, creating dynamic and evocative environments. Holl's work demonstrates the power of architecture to influence mood, perception, and behavior through carefully considered sensory elements.
Advancing the Field of Neuroarchitecture
Contemporary trends in neuroarchitecture, such as incorporating natural elements like plants, biophilic design, and circadian lighting, often lack a solid foundation from both a first-person existential perspective and a third-person empirical view. While these approaches are based on empirical evidence of their positive effects on stress reduction and cognitive function, they do not fully capture the complexity of human experience within architectural spaces. The narrow focus on these trends overlooks the multifaceted ways in which people interact with and are affected by their environments.
Applying neurophenomenological research to architecture can provide the necessary grounding for neuroarchitecture to evolve meaningfully. This approach involves a comprehensive examination of how specific design elements impact the brain and body by integrating first-person experiential reports with third-person neuroscientific data. By combining these perspectives, researchers can uncover the underlying mechanisms of spatial perception and emotional response. This ensures that both subjective experiences and objective measurements are respected and utilized meaningfully.
Neurophenomenology offers a holistic framework that bridges the gap between the sensory and emotional richness of human experience and the empirical rigor of neuroscience. By applying this interdisciplinary lens, architecture can develop design strategies that are more attuned to the full complexity of human needs and experiences. This approach not only enhances the well-being of individuals but also fosters environments that promote health, productivity, and overall quality of life. Ultimately, neurophenomenology provides the necessary depth and nuance to advance neuroarchitecture beyond its current trends, leading to more profound and impactful innovations in design.
Conclusion
The integration of philosophical and neuroscientific perspectives opens up new possibilities for understanding the human experience of space. By combining the existential, first-person insights of phenomenology with the empirical, third-person methodologies of cognitive science and neuroscience, we can gain a more comprehensive view of how architectural atmospheres affect human cognition and emotion. This interdisciplinary approach referred to as neuroarchitecture or applied neurophenomenology in this paper, promises to bridge subjective experiences and objective measurements, potentially leading to innovations in architectural design that are more attuned to human needs.
However, this merging of perspectives also presents significant challenges. One of the main problems lies in reconciling the inherently subjective nature of first-person phenomenological experiences with the objective, quantifiable data derived from third-person empirical research. Ensuring that both perspectives are respected and integrated meaningfully requires careful methodological design and a commitment to maintaining the depth and integrity of phenomenological insights while leveraging the explanatory power of empirical data. Varela's Neurophenomenological Research Project (NRP) and its continued development serve as exemplars in navigating this delicate balance, providing a framework for integrating these inherently different approaches.
By navigating the challenges of this interdisciplinary approach, we can aspire to create environments that resonate more profoundly with human experiences, ultimately enhancing both physical and psychological well-being.
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